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Title Page<br/>Copyright<br/>About The Authors<br/>Detailed Contents<br/>Preface<br/>Acknowledgments<br/>Chapter 1. A Preview of Cell Biology<br/>1.1 The Cell Theory: A Brief History<br/>Advances in Microscopy Allowed Detailed Studies of Cells<br/>The Cell Theory Applies to All Organisms<br/>1.2 The Emergence of Modern Cell Biology<br/>The Cytological Strand Deals with Cellular Structure<br/>The Biochemical Strand Concerns the Chemistry of Biological Structure and Function<br/>The Genetic Strand Focuses on Information Flow<br/>1.3 How Do We Know What We Know?<br/>Biological “Facts” May Turn Out to Be Incorrect<br/>Experiments Test Specific Hypotheses<br/>Model Organisms Play a Key Role in Modern Cell Biology Research<br/>Well-Designed Experiments Alter Only One Variable at a Time<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Using Immunofluorescence to Identify Specific Cell Components<br/>Human Connections: The Immortal Cells of Henrietta Lacks<br/>Chapter 2. The Chemistry of the Cell<br/>2.1 The Importance of Carbon<br/>Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Stable<br/>Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Diverse<br/>Carbon-Containing Molecules Can Form Stereoisomers<br/>2.2 The Importance of Water<br/>Water Molecules Are Polar<br/>Water Molecules Are Cohesive<br/>Water Has a High Temperature-Stabilizing Capacity<br/>Water Is an Excellent Solvent<br/>2.3 The Importance of Selectively Permeable Membranes<br/>A Membrane Is a Lipid Bilayer with Proteins Embedded in It<br/>Lipid Bilayers Are Selectively Permeable<br/>2.4 The Importance of Synthesis by Polymerization<br/>Macromolecules Are Critical for Cellular Form and Function<br/>Cells Contain Three Different Kinds of Macromolecular Polymers<br/>Macromolecules Are Synthesized by Stepwise Polymerization of Monomers<br/>2.5 The Importance of Self-Assembly<br/>Noncovalent Bonds and Interactions Are Important in the Folding of Macromolecules<br/>Many Proteins Spontaneously Fold into Their Biologically Functional State<br/>Molecular Chaperones Assist the Assembly of Some Proteins<br/>Self-Assembly Also Occurs in Other Cellular Structures<br/>The Tobacco Mosaic Virus Is a Case Study in Self-Assembly<br/>Self-Assembly Has Limits<br/>Hierarchical Assembly Provides Advantages for the Cell<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Determining the Chemical Fingerprint of a Cell Using Mass Spectrometry<br/>Human Connections: Taking a Deeper Look: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)<br/>Chapter 3. The Macromolecules of the Cell<br/>3.1 Proteins<br/>The Monomers Are Amino Acids<br/>The Polymers Are Polypeptides and Proteins<br/>Several Kinds of Bonds and Interactions Are Important in Protein Folding and Stability<br/>Protein Structure Depends on Amino Acid Sequence and Interactions<br/>3.2 Nucleic Acids<br/>The Monomers Are Nucleotides<br/>The Polymers Are DNA and RNA<br/>A DNA Molecule Is a Double-Stranded Helix<br/>3.3 Polysaccharides<br/>The Monomers Are Monosaccharides<br/>The Polymers Are Storage and Structural Polysaccharides<br/>Polysaccharide Structure Depends on the Kinds of Glycosidic Bonds Involved<br/>3.4 Lipids<br/>Fatty Acids Are the Building Blocks of Several Classes of Lipids<br/>Triacylglycerols Are Storage Lipids<br/>Phospholipids Are Important in Membrane Structure<br/>Glycolipids Are Specialized Membrane Components<br/>Steroids Are Lipids with a Variety of Functions<br/>Terpenes Are Formed from Isoprene<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: Aggregated Proteins and Alzheimer’s<br/>Key Technique: Using X-Ray Crystallography to Determine Protein Structure<br/>Chapter 4. Cells and Organelles<br/>4.1 The Origins of the First Cells<br/>Simple Organic Molecules May Have Formed Abiotically in the Young Earth<br/>RNA May Have Been the First Informational Molecule<br/>Liposomes May Have Defined the First Primitive Protocells<br/>4.2 Basic Properties of Cells<br/>The Three Domains of Life Are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes<br/>There Are Several Limitations on Cell Size<br/>Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes Differ from Each Other in Many Ways<br/>4.3 The Eukaryotic Cell in Overview: Structure and Function<br/>The Plasma Membrane Defines Cell Boundaries and Retains Contents<br/>The Nucleus Is the Information Center of the Eukaryotic Cell<br/>Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Provide Energy for the Cell<br/>The Endosymbiont Theory Proposes That Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Were Derived from Bacteria<br/>The Endomembrane System Synthesizes Proteins for a Variety of Cellular Destinations<br/>Other Organelles Also Have Specific Functions<br/>Ribosomes Synthesize Proteins in the Cytoplasm<br/>The Cytoskeleton Provides Structure to the Cytoplasm<br/>The Extracellular Matrix and Cell Walls Are Outside the Plasma Membrane<br/>4.4 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions: Agents That Invade Cells<br/>A Virus Consists of a DNA or RNA Core Surrounded by a Protein Coat<br/>Viroids Are Small, Circular RNA Molecules That Can Cause Plant Diseases<br/>Prions Are Infectious Protein Molecules<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: When Cellular “Breakdown” Breaks Down<br/>Key Technique: Using Centrifugation to Isolate Organelles<br/>Chapter 5. Bioenergetics: The Flow of Energy in the Cell<br/>5.1 The Importance of Energy<br/>Cells Need Energy to Perform Six Different Kinds of Work<br/>Organisms Obtain Energy Either from Sunlight or from the Oxidation of Chemical Compounds<br/>Energy Flows Through the Biosphere Continuously<br/>The Flow of Energy Through the Biosphere Is Accompanied by a Flow of Matter<br/>5.2 Bioenergetics<br/>Understanding Energy Flow Requires Knowledge of Systems, Heat, and Work<br/>The First Law of Thermodynamics States That Energy Is Conserved<br/>The Second Law of Thermodynamics States That Reactions Have Directionality<br/>Entropy and Free Energy Are Two Means of Assessing Thermodynamic Spontaneity<br/>5.3 Understanding ΔG and Keq<br/>The Equilibrium Constant Keq Is a Measure of Directionality<br/>ΔG Can Be Calculated Readily<br/>The Standard Free Energy Change Is ΔG Measured Under Standard Conditions<br/>Summing Up: The Meaning of ΔGʹ and ΔG°ʹ<br/>Free Energy Change: Sample Calculations<br/>Jumping Beans Provide a Useful Analogy for Bioenergetics<br/>Life Requires Steady-State Reactions That Move Toward Equilibrium Without Ever Getting There<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: The “Potential” of Food to Provide Energy<br/>Key Technique: Measuring How Molecules Bind to One Another Using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry<br/>Chapter 6. Enzymes: The Catalysts of Life<br/>6.1 Activation Energy and the Metastable State<br/>Before a Chemical Reaction Can Occur, the Activation Energy Barrier Must Be Overcome<br/>The Metastable State Is a Result of the Activation Barrier<br/>Catalysts Overcome the Activation Energy Barrier<br/>6.2 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts<br/>Most Enzymes Are Proteins<br/>Substrate Binding, Activation, and Catalysis Occur at the Active Site<br/>Ribozymes Are Catalytic RNA Molecules<br/>6.3 Enzyme Kinetics<br/>Monkeys and Peanuts Provide a Useful Analogy for Understanding Enzyme Kinetics<br/>Most Enzymes Display Michaelis–Menten Kinetics<br/>What Is the Meaning of V max and Km?<br/>Why Are Km and Vmax Important to Cell Biologists?<br/>The Double-Reciprocal Plot Is a Useful Means of Visualizing Kinetic Data<br/>Enzyme Inhibitors Act Either Irreversibly or Reversibly<br/>6.4 Enzyme Regulation<br/>Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Molecules Other than Reactants and Products<br/>Allosteric Enzymes Exhibit Cooperative Interactions Between Subunits<br/>Enzymes Can Also Be Regulated by the Addition or Removal of Chemical Groups<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: Ace Inhibitors: Enzyme Activity as TheDifference Between Life and Death<br/>Key Technique: Determining Km and Vmax Using Enzyme Assays<br/>Chapter 7. Membranes: Their Structure, Function, and Chemistry<br/>7.1 The Functions of Membranes<br/>Membranes Define Boundaries and Serve as Permeability Barriers<br/>Membranes Contain Specific Proteins and Therefore Have Specific Functions<br/>Membrane Proteins Regulate the Transport of Solutes<br/>Membrane Proteins Detect and Transmit Electrical and Chemical Signals<br/>Membrane Proteins Mediate Cell Adhesion and Cell-to-Cell Communication<br/>7.2 Models of Membrane Structure: An Experimental Perspective<br/>Overton and Langmuir: Lipids Are Important Components of Membranes<br/>Gorter and Grendel: The Basis of Membrane Structure Is a Lipid Bilayer<br/>Davson and Danielli: Membranes Also Contain Proteins<br/>Robertson: All Membranes Share a Common Underlying Structure<br/>Further Research Revealed Major Shortcomings of the Davson–Danielli Model<br/>Singer and Nicolson: A Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins in a Fluid Lipid Bilayer<br/>Unwin and Henderson: Most Membrane Proteins Contain Transmembrane Segments<br/>7.3 Membrane Lipids: The “Fluid” Part of the Model<br/>Membranes Contain Several Major Classes of Lipids<br/>Fatty Acids Are Essential to Membrane Structure and Function<br/>Thin-Layer Chromatography Is an Important Technique for Lipid Analysis<br/>Membrane Asymmetry: Most Lipids Are Distributed Unequally Between the Two Monolayers<br/>The Lipid Bilayer Is Fluid<br/>Most Organisms Can Regulate Membrane Fluidity<br/>Lipid Micro- or Nanodomains May Localize Molecules in Membranes<br/>7.4 Membrane Proteins: The “Mosaic” Part of the Model<br/>The Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins: Evidence from Freeze-Fracture Microscopy<br/>Membranes Contain Integral, Peripheral, and Lipid-Anchored Proteins<br/>Membrane Proteins Can Be Isolated and Analyzed<br/>Determining the Three-Dimensional Structure of Membrane Proteins Is Becoming Easier<br/>Molecular Biology Has Contributed Greatly to Our Understanding of Membrane Proteins<br/>Membrane Proteins Have a Variety of Functions<br/>Membrane Proteins Are Oriented Asymmetrically Across the Lipid Bilayer<br/>Many Membrane Proteins and Lipids Are Glycosylated<br/>Membrane Proteins Vary in Their Mobility<br/>The Erythrocyte Membrane Contains an Interconnected Network of Membrane-Associated Proteins<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP)<br/>Human Connections: It’s All in the Family<br/>Chapter 8. Transport Across Membranes: Overcoming the Permeability Barrier<br/>8.1 Cells and Transport Processes<br/>Solutes Cross Membranes by Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Active Transport<br/>The Movement of a Solute Across a Membrane Is Determined by Its Concentration Gradient or Its Electr<br/>The Erythrocyte Plasma Membrane Provides Examples of Transport<br/>8.2 Simple Diffusion: Unassisted Movement Down the Gradient<br/>Simple Diffusion Always Moves Solutes Toward Equilibrium<br/>Osmosis Is the Simple Diffusion of Water Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane<br/>Simple Diffusion Is Typically Limited to Small, Uncharged Molecules<br/>The Rate of Simple Diffusion Is Directly Proportional to the Concentration Gradient<br/>8.3 Facilitated Diffusion: Protein-Mediated Movement Down the Gradient<br/>Carrier Proteins and Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Different Mechanisms<br/>Carrier Proteins Alternate Between Two Conformational States<br/>Carrier Proteins Are Analogous to Enzymes in Their Specificity and Kinetics<br/>Carrier Proteins Transport Either One or Two Solutes<br/>The Erythrocyte Glucose Transporter and Anion Exchange Protein Are Examples of Carrier Proteins<br/>Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Forming Hydrophilic Transmembrane Channels<br/>8.4 Active Transport: Protein-Mediated Movement Up the Gradient<br/>The Coupling of Active Transport to an Energy Source May Be Direct or Indirect<br/>Direct Active Transport Depends on Four Types of Transport ATPases<br/>Indirect Active Transport Is Driven by Ion Gradients<br/>8.5 Examples of Active Transport<br/>Direct Active Transport: The Na+/K+ Pump Maintains Electrochemical Ion Gradients<br/>Indirect Active Transport: Sodium Symport Drives the Uptake of Glucose<br/>The Bacteriorhodopsin Proton Pump Uses Light Energy to Transport Protons<br/>8.6 The Energetics of Transport<br/>For Uncharged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends Only on the Concentration Gradient<br/>For Charged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends on the Electrochemical Potential<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Expression of Heterologous Membrane Proteins in Frog Oocytes<br/>Human Connections: Membrane Transport, Cystic Fibrosis, and the Prospects for Gene Therapy<br/>Chapter 9. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Glycolysis and Fermentation<br/>9.1 Metabolic Pathways<br/>9.2 ATP: The Primary Energy Molecule in Cells<br/>ATP Contains Two Energy-Rich Phosphoanhydride Bonds<br/>ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic Due to Several Factors<br/>ATP Is Extremely Important in Cellular Energy Metabolism<br/>9.3 Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism<br/>Biological Oxidations Usually Involve the Removal of Both Electrons and Protons and Are Exergonic<br/>Coenzymes Such as NAD+ Serve as Electron Acceptors in Biological Oxidations<br/>Most Chemotrophs Meet Their Energy Needs by Oxidizing Organic Food Molecules<br/>Glucose Is One of the Most Important Oxidizable Substrates in Energy Metabolism<br/>The Oxidation of Glucose Is Highly Exergonic<br/>Glucose Catabolism Yields Much More Energy in the Presence of Oxygen Than in Its Absence<br/>Based on Their Need for Oxygen, Organisms Are Aerobic, Anaerobic, or Facultative<br/>9.4 Glycolysis: ATP Generation Without the Involvement of Oxygen<br/>Glycolysis Generates ATP by Catabolizing Glucose to Pyruvate<br/>9.5 Fermentation<br/>In the Absence of Oxygen, Pyruvate Undergoes Fermentation to Regenerate NAD+<br/>Fermentation Taps Only a Fraction of the Substrate’s Free Energy but Conserves That Energy Efficie<br/>Cancer Cells Ferment Glucose to Lactate Even in the Presence of Oxygen<br/>9.6 Alternative Substrates for Glycolysis<br/>Other Sugars and Glycerol Are Also Catabolized by the Glycolytic Pathway<br/>Polysaccharides Are Cleaved to Form Sugar Phosphates That Also Enter the Glycolytic Pathway<br/>9.7 Gluconeogenesis<br/>9.8 The Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis<br/>Key Enzymes in the Glycolytic and Gluconeogenic Pathways Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation<br/>Fructose-2,6-Bisphosphate Is an Important Regulator of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis<br/>Glycolytic Enzymes May Have Functions Beyond Glycolysis<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Using Isotopic Labeling to Determine the Fate of Atoms in a Metabolic Pathway<br/>Human Connections: What Happens to the Sugar?<br/>Chapter 10. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Aerobic Respiration<br/>10.1 Cellular Respiration: Maximizing ATP Yields<br/>Aerobic Respiration Yields Much More Energy than Fermentation Does<br/>Respiration Includes Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, the Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport, and<br/>10.2 The Mitochondrion: Where the Action Takes Place<br/>Mitochondria Are Often Present Where the ATP Needs Are Greatest<br/>Mitochondria Can Adopt Complex Shapes and Vary in Number in Different Cell Types<br/>The Outer and Inner Membranes Define Two Separate Mitochondrial Compartments and Three Regions<br/>Many Mitochondrial Proteins Originate in the Cytosol<br/>Mitochondrial Functions Occur in or on Specific Membranes and Compartments<br/>In Bacteria, Respiratory Functions Are Localized to the Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm<br/>10.3 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidation in the Round<br/>Pyruvate Is Converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A by Oxidative Decarboxylation<br/>The Citric Acid Cycle Begins with the Entry of Two Carbons from Acetyl CoA<br/>Two Oxidative Decarboxylations Then Form NADH and Release CO2<br/>Direct Generation of GTP (or ATP) Occurs at One Step in the Citric Acid Cycle<br/>The Final Oxidative Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle Generate FADH2 and NADH<br/>Summing Up: The Products of the Citric Acid Cycle Are CO2 , ATP, NADH, and FADH2<br/>Several Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation<br/>The Citric Acid Cycle Also Plays a Central Role in the Catabolism of Fats and Proteins<br/>The Citric Acid Cycle Serves as a Source of Precursors for Anabolic Pathways<br/>The Glyoxylate Cycle Converts Acetyl CoA to Carbohydrates in Plants<br/>10.4 Electron Transport: Electron Flow from Coenzymes to Oxygen<br/>The Electron Transport Chain Conveys Electrons from Reduced Coenzymes to Oxygen<br/>The Electron Transport Chain Consists of Five Kinds of Carriers<br/>The Electron Carriers Function in a Sequence Determined by Their Reduction Potentials<br/>Most of the Carriers Are Organized into Four Large Respiratory Complexes<br/>The Respiratory Complexes Move Freely Within the Inner Membrane<br/>10.5 The Electrochemical Proton Gradient: Key to Energy Coupling<br/>Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis Are Coupled Events<br/>Coenzyme Oxidation Pumps Enough Protons to Form Three ATP Moleculesper NADH and Two ATP Molecules pe<br/>The Chemiosmotic Model Is Affirmed by an Impressive Array of Evidence<br/>10.6 ATP Synthesis: Putting It All Together<br/>F1 Particles Have ATP Synthase Activity<br/>Proton Translocation Through Fo Drives ATP Synthesis by F1<br/>ATP Synthesis by FoF1 Involves Physical Rotation of the Gamma Subunit<br/>10.7 Aerobic Respiration: Summing It All Up<br/>The Actual ATP Yield per Glucose during Aerobic Respiration Is Influencedby Several Factors<br/>Aerobic Respiration: A Remarkable Process<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Visualizing Cellular Structures with Three-Dimensional Electron Microscopy<br/>Human Connections: A Diet Worth Dying For?<br/>Chapter 11. Phototrophic Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis<br/>11.1 An Overview of Photosynthesis<br/>The Energy Transduction Reactions Convert Solar Energy to Chemical Energy<br/>The Carbon Assimilation Reactions Fix Carbon by Reducing Carbon Dioxide<br/>The Chloroplast Is the Photosynthetic Organelle in Eukaryotic Cells<br/>Chloroplasts Are Composed of Three Membrane Systems<br/>11.2 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction I: Light Harvesting<br/>Chlorophyll Is Life’s Primary Link to Sunlight<br/>Accessory Pigments Further Expand Access to Solar Energy<br/>Light-Gathering Molecules Are Organized into Photosystems and Light-Harvesting Complexes<br/>Oxygenic Phototrophs Have Two Types of Photosystems<br/>11.3 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction II: NADPH Synthesis<br/>Photosystem II Transfers Electrons from Water to a Plastoquinone<br/>The Cytochrome b6/f Complex Transfers Electrons from a Plastoquinol to Plastocyanin<br/>Photosystem I Transfers Electrons from Plastocyanin to Ferredoxin<br/>Ferredoxin-NADP+ Reductase Catalyzes the Reduction of NADP+<br/>11.4 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction III: ATP Synthesis<br/>A Chloroplast ATP Synthase Couples Transport of Protons Across the Thylakoid Membrane to ATP Synthes<br/>Cyclic Photophosphorylation Allows a Photosynthetic Cell to Balance NADPH and ATP Synthesis<br/>A Summary of the Complete Energy Transduction System<br/>Bacteria Use a Photosynthetic Reaction Center and Electron Transport System Similar to Those in Plan<br/>11.5 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation I: The Calvin Cycle<br/>Carbon Dioxide Enters the Calvin Cycle by Carboxylation of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate<br/>3-Phosphoglycerate Is Reduced to Form Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate<br/>Regeneration of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Allows Continuous Carbon Assimilation<br/>The Complete Calvin Cycle and Its Relation to Photosynthetic Energy Transduction<br/>11.6 Regulation of the Calvin Cycle<br/>The Calvin Cycle Is Highly Regulated to Ensure Maximum Efficiency<br/>Rubisco Activase Regulates Carbon Fixation by Rubisco<br/>11.7 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation II: Carbohydrate Synthesis<br/>Glucose-1-Phosphate Is Synthesized from Triose Phosphates<br/>Biosynthesis of Sucrose Occurs in the Cytosol<br/>Biosynthesis of Starch Occurs in the Chloroplast Stroma<br/>Photosynthesis Also Produces Reduced Nitrogen and Sulfur Compounds<br/>11.8 Rubisco’s Oxygenase Activity Decreases Photosynthetic Efficiency<br/>The Glycolate Pathway Returns Reduced Carbon from Phosphoglycolate to the Calvin Cycle<br/>C4 Plants Minimize Photorespiration by Confining Rubisco to CellsContaining High Concentrations of C<br/>CAM Plants Minimize Photorespiration and Water Loss by Opening Their Stomata Only at Night<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Determining Absorption and Action Spectra via Spectrophotometry<br/>Human Connections: How Do Plants Put On Sunscreen?<br/>Chapter 12. The Endomembrane System and Protein Sorting<br/>12.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum<br/>The Two Basic Kinds of Endoplasmic Reticulum Differ in Structure and Function<br/>Rough ER Is Involved in the Biosynthesis and Processing of Proteins<br/>Smooth ER Is Involved in Drug Detoxification, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Calcium Storage, and Steroid<br/>The ER Plays a Central Role in the Biosynthesis of Membranes<br/>12.2 The Golgi Apparatus<br/>The Golgi Apparatus Consists of a Series of Membrane-Bounded Cisternae<br/>Two Models Account for the Flow of Lipids and Proteins Through the Golgi Apparatus<br/>12.3 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus in Protein Processing<br/>Protein Folding and Quality Control Take Place Within the ER<br/>Initial Glycosylation Occurs in the ER<br/>Further Glycosylation Occurs in the Golgi Apparatus<br/>12.4 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus In Protein Trafficking<br/>Cotranslational Import Allows Some Polypeptides to Enter the ER as They Are Being Synthesized<br/>The Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) Attaches the Ribosome-mRNA-PolypeptideComplex to the ER Membra<br/>Proteins Released into the ER Lumen Are Routed to the Golgi Apparatus, Secretory Vesicles, Lysosomes<br/>Stop-Transfer Sequences Mediate the Insertion of Integral Membrane Proteins<br/>Posttranslational Import Is an Alternative Mechanism for Import into the ER Lumen<br/>12.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Transporting Material Across the Plasma Membrane<br/>Secretory Pathways Transport Molecules to the Exterior of the Cell<br/>Exocytosis Releases Intracellular Molecules Outside the Cell<br/>Endocytosis Imports Extracellular Molecules by Forming Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane<br/>12.6 Coated Vesicles in Cellular Transport Processes<br/>Clathrin-Coated Vesicles Are Surrounded by Lattices Composed of Clathrin and Adaptor Protein<br/>The Assembly of Clathrin Coats Drives the Formation of Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane and TGN<br/>COPI- and COPII-Coated Vesicles Travel Between the ER and Golgi Apparatus Cisternae<br/>SNARE Proteins Mediate Fusion Between Vesicles and Target Membranes<br/>12.7 Lysosomes and Cellular Digestion<br/>Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Rest of the Cell<br/>Lysosomes Develop from Endosomes<br/>Lysosomal Enzymes Are Important for Several Different Digestive Processes<br/>Lysosomal Storage Diseases Are Usually Characterized by the Accumulation of Indigestible Material<br/>The Plant Vacuole: A Multifunctional Digestive Organelle<br/>12.8 Peroxisomes<br/>Most Peroxisomal Functions Are Linked to Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism<br/>Plant Cells Contain Types of Peroxisomes Not Found in Animal Cells<br/>Peroxisome Biogenesis Can Occur by Division of Preexisting Peroxisomes or by Vesicle Fusion<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Visualizing Vesicles at the Cell Surface Using Total Internal Reflection (TIRF) Micro<br/>Human Connections: A Bad Case of the Munchies? (Autophagy In Inflammatory Bowel Disease)<br/>Chapter 13. Cytoskeletal Systems<br/>13.1 Major Structural Elements of the Cytoskeleton<br/>Eukaryotes Have Three Basic Types of Cytoskeletal Elements<br/>Bacteria Have Cytoskeletal Systems That Are Structurally Similar to Those in Eukaryotes<br/>The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamically Assembled and Disassembled<br/>13.2 Microtubules<br/>Two Types of Microtubules Are Responsible for Many Functions in the Cell<br/>Tubulin Heterodimers Are the Protein Building Blocks of Microtubules<br/>Microtubules Can Form as Singlets, Doublets, or Triplets<br/>Microtubules Form by the Addition of Tubulin Dimers at Their Ends<br/>Addition of Tubulin Dimers Occurs More Quickly at the Plus Ends of Microtubules<br/>Drugs Can Affect the Assembly and Stability of Microtubules<br/>GTP Hydrolysis Contributes to the Dynamic Instability of Microtubules<br/>Microtubules Originate from Microtubule-Organizing Centers Within the Cell<br/>MTOCs Organize and Polarize Microtubules Within Cells<br/>Microtubule Stability Is Tightly Regulated in Cells by a Variety of Microtubule-Binding Proteins<br/>13.3 Microfilaments<br/>Actin Is the Protein Building Block of Microfilaments<br/>Different Types of Actin Are Found in Cells<br/>G-Actin Monomers Polymerize into F-Actin Microfilaments<br/>Specific Drugs Affect Polymerization of Microfilaments<br/>Cells Can Dynamically Assemble Actin into a Variety of Structures<br/>Actin-Binding Proteins Regulate the Polymerization, Length, and Organization of Microfilaments<br/>Proteins That Link Actin to Membranes<br/>Phospholipids and Rho Family GTPases Regulate Where and When Actin-Based Structures Assemble<br/>13.4 Intermediate Filaments<br/>Intermediate Filament Proteins Are Tissue Specific<br/>Intermediate Filaments Assemble from Fibrous Subunits<br/>Intermediate Filaments Confer Mechanical Strength on Tissues<br/>The Cytoskeleton Is a Mechanically Integrated Structure<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Studying the Dynamic Cytoskeleton<br/>Human Connections: When Actin Kills<br/>Chapter 14. Cellular Movement: Motility and Contractility<br/>14.1 Microtubule-Based Movement Inside Cells: Kinesins and Dyneins<br/>Motor Proteins Move Cargoes Along MTs During Axonal Transport<br/>Classic Kinesins Move Toward the Plus Ends of Microtubules<br/>Kinesins Are a Large Family of Proteins<br/>Dyneins Are Found in Axonemes and the Cytosol<br/>Microtubule Motors Direct Vesicle Transport and Shape the Endomem-brane System<br/>14.2 Microtubule-Based Cell Motility: Cilia And Flagella<br/>Cilia and Flagella Are Common Motile Appendages of Eukaryotic Cells<br/>Cilia and Flagella Consist of an Axoneme Connected to a Basal Body<br/>Doublet Sliding Within the Axoneme Causes Cilia and Flagella to Bend<br/>14.3 Microfilament-Based Movement Inside Cells: Myosins<br/>Myosins Are a Large Family of Actin-Based Motors with Diverse Roles in Cell Motility<br/>Many Myosins Move Along Actin Filaments in Short Steps<br/>14.4 Microfilament-Based Motility: Muscle Cells In Action<br/>Skeletal Muscle Cells Contain Thin and Thick Filaments<br/>Sarcomeres Contain Ordered Arrays of Actin, Myosin, and Accessory Proteins<br/>The Sliding-Filament Model Explains Muscle Contraction<br/>Cross-Bridges Hold Filaments Together, and ATP Powers Their Movement<br/>The Regulation of Muscle Contraction Depends on Calcium<br/>The Coordinated Contraction of Cardiac Muscle Cells Involves Electrical Coupling<br/>Smooth Muscle Is More Similar to Nonmuscle Cells than to Skeletal Muscle<br/>14.5 Microfilament-Based Motility In Nonmuscle Cells<br/>Cell Migration via Lamellipodia Involves Cycles of Protrusion, Attachment, Translocation, and Detach<br/>Chemotaxis Is a Directional Movement in Response to a Graded Chemical Stimulus<br/>Amoeboid Movement Involves Cycles of Gelation and Solation of Actin<br/>Actin-Based Motors Move Components Within the Cytosol of Some Cells<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Watching Motors Too Small to See<br/>Human Connections: Dyneins Help Us Tell Left From Right<br/>Chapter 15. Beyond the Cell: Cell Adhesions, Cell Junctions, and Extracellular Structures<br/>15.1 Cell-Cell Junctions<br/>Adhesive Junctions Link Adjoining Cells<br/>Transient Cell-Cell Adhesions Are Important for Many Cellular Events<br/>Tight Junctions Prevent the Movement of Molecules Across Cell Layers<br/>Gap Junctions Allow Direct Electrical and Chemical Communication Between Cells<br/>15.2 The Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells<br/>Collagens Are Responsible for the Strength of the Extracellular Matrix<br/>Elastins Impart Elasticity and Flexibility to the Extracellular Matrix<br/>Collagen and Elastin Fibers Are Embedded in a Matrix of Proteoglycans<br/>Free Hyaluronate Lubricates Joints and Facilitates Cell Migration<br/>Adhesive Glycoproteins Anchor Cells to the Extracellular Matrix<br/>Fibronectins Bind Cells to the ECM and Foster Cellular Movement<br/>Laminins Bind Cells to the Basal Lamina<br/>Integrins Are Cell Surface Receptors That Bind ECM Components<br/>The Dystrophin/Dystroglycan Complex Stabilizes Attachments of Muscle Cells to the ECM<br/>15.3 The Plant Cell Surface<br/>Cell Walls Provide a Structural Framework and Serve as a Permeability Barrier<br/>The Plant Cell Wall Is a Network of Cellulose Microfibrils, Polysaccharides, and Glycoproteins<br/>Cell Walls Are Synthesized in Several Discrete Stages<br/>Plasmodesmata Permit Direct Cell-Cell Communication Through the Cell Wall<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: The Costly Effects of Weak Adhesion<br/>Key Technique: Building an ECM from Scratch<br/>Chapter 16. The Structural Basis of Cellular Information: DNA, Chromosomes, and the Nucleus<br/>16.1 Chemical Nature of the Genetic Material<br/>The Discovery of DNA Led to Conflicting Proposals Concerning the Chemical Nature of Genes<br/>Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Bacteria<br/>Hershey and Chase Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Viruses<br/>RNA Is the Genetic Material in Some Viruses<br/>16.2 DNA Structure<br/>Chargaff ’s Rules Reveal That A = T and G = C<br/>Watson and Crick Discovered That DNA Is a Double Helix<br/>DNA Can Be Interconverted Between Relaxed and Supercoiled Forms<br/>The Two Strands of a DNA Double Helix Can Be Denatured and Renatured<br/>16.3 DNA Packaging<br/>Bacteria Package DNA in Bacterial Chromosomes and Plasmids<br/>Eukaryotes Package DNA in Chromatin and Chromosomes<br/>Nucleosomes Are the Basic Unit of Chromatin Structure<br/>A Histone Octamer Forms the Nucleosome Core<br/>Nucleosomes Are Packed Together to Form Chromatin Fibers and Chromosomes<br/>Changes in Histones and Chromatin Remodeling Proteins Can Alter Chromatin Packing<br/>Chromosomal DNA Contains Euchromatin and Heterochromatin<br/>Some Heterochromatin Plays a Structural Role in Chromosomes<br/>Chromosomes Can Be Identified by Unique Banding Patterns<br/>Eukaryotic Chromosomes Contain Large Amounts of Repeated DNA Sequences<br/>Eukaryotes Package Some of Their DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts<br/>16.4 The Nucleus<br/>A Double-Membrane Nuclear Envelope Surrounds the Nucleus<br/>Molecules Enter and Exit the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores<br/>The Nucleus Is Mechanically Integrated with the Rest of the Cell<br/>Chromatin Is Located Within the Nucleus in a Nonrandom Fashion<br/>The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: FISHing for Specific Sequences<br/>Human Connections: Lamins and Premature Aging<br/>Chapter 17. DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination<br/>17.1 DNA Replication<br/>DNA Synthesis Occurs During S Phase<br/>DNA Replication Is Semiconservative<br/>DNA Replication Is Usually Bidirectional<br/>Replication Initiates at Specialized DNA Elements<br/>DNA Polymerases Catalyze the Elongation of DNA Chains<br/>DNA Is Synthesized as Discontinuous Segments That Are Joined Together by DNA Ligase<br/>In Bacteria, Proofreading Is Performed by the 3'→5' Exonuclease Activity of DNA Polymerase<br/>RNA Primers Initiate DNA Replication<br/>The DNA Double Helix Must Be Locally Unwound During Replication<br/>DNA Unwinding and DNA Synthesis Are Coordinated on Both Strands via the Replisome<br/>Eukaryotes Disassemble and Reassemble Nucleosomes as Replication Proceeds<br/>Telomeres Solve the DNA End-Replication Problem<br/>17.2 DNA Damage and Repair<br/>Mutations Can Occur Spontaneously During Replication<br/>Mutagens Can Induce Mutations<br/>DNA Repair Systems Correct Many Kinds of DNA Damage<br/>17.3 Homologous Recombination and Mobile Genetic Elements<br/>Homologous Recombination Is Initiated by Double-Strand Breaks in DNA<br/>Transposons Are Mobile Genetic Elements<br/>Transposons Differ Based on Their Autonomy and Mechanism of Movement<br/>Bacterial DNA-Only Transposons Can Be Composite or Noncomposite<br/>Eukaryotes Also Have DNA-Only Transposons<br/>Retrotransposons<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: Children of The Moon<br/>Key Technique: CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing<br/>Chapter 18. Gene Expression: I. Transcription<br/>18.1 The Directional Flow of Genetic Information<br/>Transcription and Translation Involve Many of the Same Components in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes<br/>Where Transcription and Translation Occur Differs in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes<br/>In Some Cases RNA Is Reversed Transcribed into DNA<br/>18.2 Mechanisms of Transcription<br/>Transcription Involves Four Stages: RNA Polymerase Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination<br/>Bacterial Transcription Involves ˜ Factor Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination<br/>Transcription in Eukaryotic Cells Has Additional Complexity Compared with Prokaryotes<br/>RNA Polymerases I, II, and III Carry Out Transcription in the Eukaryotic Nucleus<br/>Three Classes of Promoters Are Found in Eukaryotic Nuclear Genes, One for Each Type of RNA Polymeras<br/>General Transcription Factors Are Involved in the Transcription of All Nuclear Genes<br/>Elongation, Termination, and RNA Cleavage Are Involved in Completing Eukaryotic RNA Synthesis<br/>18.3 RNA Processing and Turnover<br/>The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation<br/>Ribosomal RNA Processing Involves Cleavage of Multiple rRNAs from a Common Precursor<br/>Transfer RNA Processing Involves Removal, Addition, and Chemical Modification of Nucleotides<br/>Messenger RNA Processing in Eukaryotes Involves Capping, Addition of Poly(A), and Removal of Introns<br/>Spliceosomes Remove Introns from Pre-mRNA<br/>Some Introns Are Self-Splicing<br/>The Existence of Introns Permits Alternative Splicing and Exon Shuffling<br/>Cells Localize Nuclear RNAs in Several Types of Processing Centers<br/>Nucleic Acid Editing Allows Sequences to Be Altered<br/>The C-Terminal Domain of RNA Polymerase II Coordinates RNA Processing<br/>Nuclear Export of Mature mRNA<br/>Most mRNA Molecules Have a Relatively Short Life Span<br/>The Abundance of mRNA Allows Amplification of Genetic Information<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Hunting for DNA-Protein Interactions<br/>Human Connections: Death by Fungus (Amanita PhalloidesPoisoning)<br/>Chapter 19. Gene Expression: II. The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis<br/>19.1 The Genetic Code<br/>The Genetic Code Is a Triplet Code<br/>The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Nonoverlapping<br/>Messenger RNA Guides the Synthesis of Polypeptide Chains<br/>The Codon Dictionary Was Established Using Synthetic RNA Polymers and Triplets<br/>Of the 64 Possible Codons in Messenger RNA, 61 Encode Amino Acids<br/>The Genetic Code Is (Nearly) Universal<br/>Codon Usage Bias<br/>19.2 Translation: The Cast of Characters<br/>Ribosomes Carry Out Polypeptide Synthesis<br/>Transfer RNA Molecules Bring Amino Acids to the Ribosome<br/>Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Link Amino Acids to the Correct Transfer RNAs<br/>Messenger RNA Brings Polypeptide Coding Information to the Ribosome<br/>Protein Factors Are Required for Translational Initiation, Elongation, and Termination<br/>19.3 The Mechanism of Translation<br/>Translational Initiation Requires Initiation Factors, Ribosomal Subunits, mRNA, and Initiator tRNA<br/>Chain Elongation Involves Cycles of Aminoacyl tRNA Binding, Peptide Bond Formation, and Translocatio<br/>Most mRNAs Are Read by Many Ribosomes Simultaneously<br/>Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Is Triggered by Release Factors That Recognize Stop Codons<br/>Polypeptide Folding Is Facilitated by Molecular Chaperones<br/>Protein Synthesis Typically Utilizes a Substantial Fraction of a Cell’s Energy Budget<br/>A Summary of Translation<br/>19.4 Mutations and Translation<br/>Suppressor tRNAs Overcome the Effects of Some Mutations<br/>Nonsense-Mediated Decay and Nonstop Decay Promote the Destruction of Defective mRNAs<br/>19.5 Posttranslational Processing<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: To Catch a Killer: The Problem of Antibiotic Resistance In Bacteria<br/>Key Technique: Protein Localization Using Fluorescent Fusion Proteins<br/>Chapter 20. The Regulation of Gene Expression<br/>20.1 Bacterial Gene Regulation<br/>Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways Are Regulated Through Induction and Repression, Respectively<br/>The Genes Involved in Lactose Catabolism Are Organized into an Inducible Operon<br/>The lac Operon Is Negatively Regulated by the lac Repressor<br/>Studies of Mutant Bacteria Revealed How the lac Operon Is Organized<br/>Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP) Positively Regulates the lac Operon<br/>The lac Operon Is an Example of the Dual Control of Gene Expression<br/>The Structure of the lac Repressor/Operator Complex Confirms the Operon Model<br/>The Genes Involved in Tryptophan Synthesis Are Organized into a Repressible Operon<br/>Sigma Factors Determine Which Sets of Genes Can Be Expressed<br/>Attenuation Allows Transcription to Be Regulated After the Initiation Step<br/>Riboswitches Allow Transcription and Translation to Be Controlled by Small-Molecule Interactions wit<br/>The CRISPR/Cas System Protects Bacteria Against Viral Infection<br/>20.2 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Genomic Control<br/>Multicellular Eukaryotes Are Composed of Numerous Specialized Cell Types<br/>Eukaryotic Gene Expression Is Regulated at Five Main Levels<br/>The Cells of a Multicellular Organism Usually Contain the Same Set of Genes<br/>Gene Amplification and Deletion Can Alter the Genome<br/>DNA Rearrangements Can Alter the Genome<br/>Chromatin Decondensation Is Involved in Genomic Control<br/>DNA Methylation Is Associated with Inactive Regions of the Genome<br/>20.3 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Transcriptional Control<br/>Different Sets of Genes Are Transcribed in Different Cell Types<br/>Proximal Control Elements Lie Close to the Promoter<br/>Enhancers and Silencers Are DNA Elements Located at Variable Distances from the Promoter<br/>Coactivators Mediate the Interaction Between Regulatory Transcription Factors and the RNA Polymerase<br/>Multiple DNA Control Elements and Transcription Factors Act in Combination<br/>DNA-Binding and Activation Domains of Regulatory Transcription Factors Are Functionally Separable<br/>Several Common Types of Transcription Factors Bind to DNA and Activate Transcription<br/>DNA Response Elements Coordinate the Expression of Nonadjacent Genes<br/>Steroid Hormone Receptors Act as Transcription Factors That Bind to Hormone Response Elements<br/>CREBs and STATs Are Examples of Transcription Factors Activated by Phosphorylation<br/>The Heat Shock Response Element Coordinates Stress Responses<br/>Homeotic Genes Encode Transcription Factors That Regulate Embryonic Development<br/>20.4 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Posttranscriptional Control<br/>Control of RNA Processing and Nuclear Export Follows Transcription<br/>Translation Rates Can Be Controlled by Initiation Factors and Translational Repressors<br/>Translation Can Also Be Controlled by Regulation of mRNA Degradation<br/>RNA Interference Utilizes Small RNAs to Silence Gene Expression<br/>MicroRNAs Produced by Normal Cellular Genes Silence the Translation of mRNAs<br/>Piwi-Interacting RNAs Are Small Regulatory RNAs That Protect the Germline of Eukaryotes<br/>Long Noncoding RNAs Play a Variety of Roles in Eukaryotic Gene Regulation<br/>Posttranslational Control Involves Modifications of Protein Structure, Function, and Degradation<br/>Ubiquitin Targets Proteins for Degradation by Proteasomes<br/>A Summary of Eukaryotic Gene Regulation<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: The Epigenome: Methylation and Disease<br/>Key Technique: Gene Knockdown via RNAi<br/>Chapter 21. Molecular Biology Techniques for Cell Biology<br/>21.1 Analyzing, Manipulating, and Cloning DNA<br/>PCR Is Widely Used to Clone Genes<br/>Restriction Endonucleases Cleave DNA Molecules at Specific Sites<br/>Gel Electrophoresis Allows DNA to Be Separated by Size<br/>Restriction Mapping Can Characterize DNA<br/>Southern Blotting Identifies Specific DNAs from a Mixture<br/>Restriction Enzymes Allow Production of Recombinant DNA<br/>DNA Cloning Can Use Bacterial Cloning Vectors<br/>Genomic and cDNA Libraries Are Both Useful for DNA Cloning<br/>21.2 Sequencing and Analyzing Genomes<br/>Rapid Procedures Exist for DNA Sequencing<br/>Whole Genomes Can Be Sequenced<br/>Comparative Genomics Allows Comparison of Genomes and Genes Within Them<br/>The Field of Bioinformatics Helps Decipher Genomes<br/>Tiny Differences in Genome Sequence Distinguish People from One Another<br/>21.3 Analyzing RNA and Proteins<br/>Several Techniques Allow Detection of mRNAs in Time and Space<br/>The Transcription of Thousands of Genes Can Be Assessed Simultaneously<br/>Proteins Can Be Studied Using Electrophoresis<br/>Antibodies Can Be Used to Study Specific Proteins<br/>Proteins Can Be Isolated by Size, Charge, or Affinity<br/>Proteins Can Be Identified from Complex Mixtures Using Mass Spectrometry<br/>Protein Function Can Be Studied Using Molecular Biology Techniques<br/>Protein-Protein Interactions Can Be Studied in a Variety of Ways<br/>21.4 Analyzing and Manipulating Gene Function<br/>Transgenic Organisms Carry Foreign Genes That Are Passed on to Subsequent Generations<br/>Transcriptional Reporters Are Useful for Studying Regulation of Gene Expression<br/>The Role of Specific Genes Can Be Assessed By Identifying Mutations and by Knockdown<br/>Genetic Engineering Can Produce Valuable Proteins That Are Otherwise Difficult to Obtain<br/>Food Crops Can Be Genetically Modified<br/>Gene Therapies Are Being Developed for the Treatment of Human Diseases<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)<br/>Human Connections: More Than Your Fingertips: Identifying Genetic “Fingerprints”<br/>Chapter 22. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: I. Electrical and Synaptic Signaling in Neurons<br/>22.1 Neurons and Membrane Potential<br/>Neurons Are Specially Adapted to Transmit Electrical Signals<br/>Neurons Undergo Changes in Membrane Potential<br/>Neurons Display Electrical Excitability<br/>Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Ion Concentrations and Selective Membrane Permeability<br/>The Nernst Equation Describes the Relationship Between Membrane Potential and Ion Concentration<br/>Steady-State Ion Concentrations Affect Resting Membrane Potential<br/>The Goldman Equation Describes the Combined Effects of Ions on Membrane Potential<br/>22.2 Electrical Excitability and the Action Potential<br/>Patch Clamping and Molecular Biological Techniques Allow Study of Single Ion Channels<br/>Specific Domains of Voltage-Gated Channels Act as Sensors and Inactivators<br/>Action Potentials Propagate Electrical Signals Along an Axon<br/>Action Potentials Involve Rapid Changes in the Membrane Potential of the Axon<br/>Action Potentials Result from the Rapid Movement of Ions Through Axonal Membrane Channels<br/>Action Potentials Are Propagated Along the Axon Without Losing Strength<br/>The Myelin Sheath Acts Like an Electrical Insulator Surrounding the Axon<br/>22.3 Synaptic Transmission and Signal Integration<br/>Neurotransmitters Relay Signals Across Nerve Synapses<br/>Elevated Calcium Levels Stimulate Secretion of Neurotransmitters from Presynaptic Neurons<br/>Secretion of Neurotransmitters Involves the Docking and Fusion of Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane<br/>Neurotransmitters Are Detected by Specific Receptors on Postsynaptic Neurons<br/>Neurotransmitters Must Be Inactivated Shortly After Their Release<br/>Postsynaptic Potentials Integrate Signals from Multiple Neurons<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Patch Clamping<br/>Human Connections: The Toxic Price of the Fountain of Youth<br/>Chapter 23. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: II. Messengers and Receptors<br/>23.1 Chemical Signals and Cellular Receptors<br/>Chemical Signaling Involves Several Key Components<br/>Receptor Binding Involves Quantitative Interactions Between Ligands and Their Receptors<br/>Cells Can Amplify Signals Once They Are Received<br/>Cell-Cell Signals Act Through a Limited Number of Receptors and Signal Transduction Pathways<br/>23.2 G Protein–Coupled Receptors<br/>G Protein–Coupled Receptors Act via Hydrolysis of GTP<br/>Cyclic AMP Is a Second Messenger Whose Production Is Regulated by Some G Proteins<br/>Disruption of G Protein Signaling Causes Human Disease<br/>Many G Proteins Act Through Inositol Trisphosphate and Diacylglycerol<br/>The Release of Calcium Ions Is a Key Event in Many Signaling Processes<br/>23.3 Enzyme-Coupled Receptors<br/>Growth Factors Often Bind Protein Kinase-Associated Receptors<br/>Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Aggregate and Undergo Autophosphorylation<br/>Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Initiate a Signal Transduction Cascade Involving Ras and MAP Kinase<br/>The Key Steps in RTK Signaling Can Be Dissected Using Mutants<br/>Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate a Variety of Other Signaling Pathways<br/>Other Growth Factors Transduce Their Signals via Receptor Serine-Threonine Kinases<br/>Other Enzyme-Coupled Receptors Families<br/>23.4 Putting It All Together: Signal Integration<br/>Scaffolding Complexes Can Facilitate Cell Signaling<br/>Different Signaling Pathways Are Integrated Through Crosstalk<br/>23.5 Hormones and Other Long-Range Signals<br/>Hormones Can Be Classified by Their Chemical Properties<br/>The Endocrine System Controls Multiple Signaling Pathways to Regulate Glucose Levels<br/>Steroid Hormones Bind Hormones in the Cytosol and Carry Them into the Nucleus<br/>Gases Can Act as Cell Signals<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Calcium Indicators and Ionophores<br/>Human Connections: The Gas That Prevents a Heart Attack<br/>Chapter 24. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis<br/>24.1 Overview of the Cell Cycle<br/>24.2 Nuclear and Cell Division<br/>Mitosis Is Subdivided into Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase<br/>The Mitotic Spindle Is Responsible for Chromosome Movements During Mitosis<br/>Cytokinesis Divides the Cytoplasm<br/>Bacteria and Eukaryotic Organelles Divide in a Different Manner from Eukaryotic Cells<br/>24.3 Regulation of the Cell Cycle<br/>Cell Cycle Length Varies Among Different Cell Types<br/>Cell Cycle Progression Is Controlled at Several Key Transition Points<br/>Cell Fusion Experiments and Cell Cycle Mutants Identified Molecules That Control the Cell Cycle<br/>The Cell Cycle Is Controlled by Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (Cdks)<br/>Cdk-Cyclin Complexes Are Tightly Regulated<br/>The Anaphase-Promoting Complex Allows Exit from Mitosis<br/>Checkpoint Pathways Monitor Key Steps in the Cell Cycle<br/>24.4 Growth Factors and Cell Proliferation<br/>Stimulatory Growth Factors Activate the Ras Pathway<br/>Stimulatory Growth Factors Can Also Activate the PI 3-Kinase–Akt Pathway<br/>Inhibitory Growth Factors Act Through Cdk Inhibitors<br/>Putting It All Together: The Cell Cycle Regulation Machine<br/>24.5 Apoptosis<br/>Apoptosis Is Triggered by Death Signals or Withdrawal of Survival Factors<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Key Technique: Measuring Cells Millions at a Time<br/>Human Connections: What do Ethnobotany and Cancer Have in Common?<br/>Chapter 25. Sexual Reproduction, Meiosis, and Genetic Recombination<br/>25.1 Sexual Reproduction<br/>Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variety<br/>Gametes Are Haploid Cells Specialized for Sexual Reproduction<br/>25.2 Meiosis<br/>The Life Cycles of Sexual Organisms Have Diploid and Haploid Phases<br/>Meiosis Converts One Diploid Cell into Four Haploid Cells<br/>Meiosis I Produces Two Haploid Cells That Have Chromosomes Composed of Sister Chromatids<br/>Meiosis II Resembles a Mitotic Division<br/>Defects in Meiosis Lead to Nondisjunction<br/>Sperm and Egg Cells Are Generated by Meiosis Accompanied by Cell Differentiation<br/>Meiotic Maturation of Oocytes Is Tightly Regulated<br/>25.3 Genetic Variability: Segregation and Assortment of Alleles<br/>Meiosis Generates Genetic Diversity<br/>Information Specifying Recessive Traits Can Be Present Without Being Displayed<br/>Alleles of Each Gene Segregate from Each Other During Gamete Formation<br/>Alleles of Each Gene Segregate Independently of the Alleles of Other Genes<br/>Chromosome Behavior Explains the Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment<br/>The DNA Molecules of Homologous Chromosomes Have Similar Base Sequences<br/>25.4 Genetic Variability: Recombination and Crossing Over<br/>Chromosomes Contain Groups of Linked Genes That Are Usually Inherited Together<br/>Homologous Chromosomes Exchange Segments During Crossing Over<br/>Gene Locations Can Be Mapped by Measuring Recombination Frequencies<br/>25.5 Genetic Recombination in Bacteria and Viruses<br/>Co-infection of Bacterial Cells with Related Bacteriophages Can Lead to Genetic Recombination<br/>Recombination in Bacteria Can Occur via Transformation or Transduction<br/>Conjugation Is a Modified Sexual Activity That Facilitates Genetic Recombination in Bacteria<br/>25.6 Mechanisms of Homologous Recombination<br/>DNA Breakage and Exchange Underlie Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes<br/>The Synaptonemal Complex Facilitates Homologous Recombination During Meiosis<br/>Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes Relies on High-Fidelity DNA Repair<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: When Meiosis Goes Awry<br/>Key Technique: Using Mendel’s Rules to Predict Human Disease<br/>Chapter 26. Cancer Cells<br/>26.1 How Cancers Arise<br/>Tumors Arise When the Balance Between Cell Division and Cell Differentiation or Death Is Disrupted<br/>Cancer Cell Proliferation Is Anchorage Independent and Insensitive to Population Density<br/>Cancer Cells Are Immortalized by Mechanisms That Maintain Telomere Length<br/>Defects in Signaling Pathways, Cell Cycle Controls, and Apoptosis Contribute to Cancer<br/>Cancer Arises Through a Multistep Process Involving Initiation, Promotion, and Tumor Progression<br/>26.2 How Cancers Spread<br/>Angiogenesis Is Required for Tumors to Grow Beyond a Few Millimeters in Diameter<br/>Blood Vessel Growth Is Controlled by a Balance Between Angiogenesis Activators and Inhibitors<br/>Cancer Cells Spread by Invasion and Metastasis<br/>Changes in Cell Adhesion, Motility, and Protease Production Promote Metastasis<br/>Relatively Few Cancer Cells Survive the Voyage Through the Bloodstream<br/>Blood Flow and Organ-Specific Factors Determine Sites of Metastasis<br/>The Immune System Influences the Growth and Spread of Cancer Cells<br/>The Tumor Microenvironment Influences Tumor Growth, Invasion, and Metastasis<br/>26.3 What Causes Cancer?<br/>Epidemiological Data Have Allowed Many Causes of Cancer to Be Identified<br/>Errors in DNA Replication or Repair Explain Many Cancers<br/>Inborn Errors Explain Some Cancers<br/>Many Chemicals Can Cause Cancer, Often After Metabolic Activation in the Liver<br/>DNA Mutations Triggered by Chemical Carcinogens Lead to Cancer<br/>Ionizing and Ultraviolet Radiation Also Cause DNA Mutations That Lead to Cancer<br/>Viruses and Other Infectious Agents Trigger the Development of Some Cancers<br/>26.4 Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes<br/>Oncogenes Are Genes Whose Products Can Trigger the Development of Cancer<br/>Proto-oncogenes Are Converted into Oncogenes by Several Distinct Mechanisms<br/>Most Oncogenes Encode Components of Growth-Signaling Pathways<br/>Tumor Suppressor Genes Are Genes Whose Loss or Inactivation Can Lead to Cancer<br/>The RB Tumor Suppressor Gene Was Discovered by Studying Families with Hereditary Retinoblastoma<br/>The p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene Is the Most Frequently Mutated Gene in Human Cancers<br/>The APC Tumor Suppressor Gene Encodes a Protein That Inhibits the Wnt Signaling Pathway<br/>Inactivation of Some Tumor Suppressor Genes Leads to Genetic Instability<br/>Cancers Develop by the Stepwise Accumulation of Mutations Involving Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor G<br/>Epigenetic Changes in Gene Expression Influence the Properties of Cancer Cells<br/>Summing Up: Carcinogenesis and the Hallmarks of Cancer<br/>26.5 Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment<br/>Cancer Is Diagnosed by Microscopic and Molecular Examination of Tissue Specimens<br/>Screening Techniques for Early Detection Can Prevent Cancer Deaths<br/>Surgery, Radiation, and Chemotherapy Are Standard Treatments for Cancer<br/>Molecular Targeting Can Attack Cancer Cells More Specifically Than Chemotherapy<br/>Using the Immune System to Target Cancer Cells<br/>Cancer Treatments Can Be Tailored to Individual Patients<br/>Summary of Key Points<br/>Problem Set<br/>Human Connections: Molecular Sleuthing in Cancer Diagnosis<br/>Key Technique: Targeting Molecules in the Fight Against Cancer<br/>Appendix Visualizing Cells And Molecules<br/>Answer Key To Concept Check And Key Technique Questions<br/>Glossary<br/>Photo, Illustration, And Text Credits<br/>Index<br/>A<br/>B<br/>C<br/>D<br/>E<br/>F<br/>G<br/>H<br/>I<br/>J<br/>K<br/>L<br/>M<br/>N<br/>O<br/>P<br/>Q<br/>R<br/>S<br/>T<br/>U<br/>V<br/>W<br/>X<br/>Y<br/>Z<br/> |
