The ecology of plants / Jessica Gurevitch, Samuel M. Scheiner, & Gordon A. Fox.

Now in full color, this thoroughly revised and updated second edition of The Ecology of Plants incorporates many new illustrations and hundreds of new references. The text covers a range of topics that you might find in a general ecology textbook, but with the focus on the interactions between plants and their environment over a range of scales. Some of the subjects covered are unique to plants, such as photosynthesis and the ecology of plant--soil interactions; other topics, such as resource and mate acquisition, emphasize the distinctive ways plants (in contrast to mobile animals) deal with their environments. The book is unusual in emphasizing the importance of evolutionary and other historical processes for current ecology. Throughout the text, human environmental influences are discussed. While the book is written for an undergraduate college course in plant ecology, the engaging style, thorough coverage of the field, and contemporary perspective make it accessible and useful to others as well, from graduate students in conservation biology to evolutionary biologists and resource managers. For Instructors Instructor's Resource CD: This resource includes all the textbook's figures, photographs, and tables, available as JPEGs (high- and low-resolution) and in PowerPoint.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Front Matter
Copyright Page
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 The Science of Plant Ecology
Ecology as a Science
The Genesis of Scientific Knowledge
Objectivity, Subjectivity, Choice, and Chance in Scientific Research
Experiments: The Heart of Research
Testing Theories
Specific Results versus General Understanding
Science and Other Ways of Knowing, Revisited
Scale and Heterogeneity
The Structure and History of Plant Ecology
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
PART I The Individual and its Environment
Chapter 2 Photosynthesis and the Light Environment
The Process of Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic Rates
Limitations Caused by Light Levels
Limitations on Carbon Uptake
Variation in Photosynthetic Rates within and between Habitats
The Three Photosynthetic Pathways
C3 Photosynthesis
C4 Photosynthesis
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Photosynthesis)
Evolution of the Three Photosynthetic Pathways
Phylogeny of the Photosynthetic Pathways
Photosynthesis through Evolutionary Time
Growth Form, Phenology, and Distribution of C3, C4, and CAM Plants
Growth Forms and Habitats
Phenology
Geographic Distributions
Adaptations to the Light Environment
Sun and Shade Leaves
Species’ Adaptations to High-Light and Low-Light Habitats
Do Sun and Shade Adaptations Exist Within Species?
Day Length: Responses and Adaptations
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 3 Water Relations and Energy Balance
Adapting to Life on Land
Water Potential
The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum
Transpiration and the Control of Water Loss
Strategies for Coping with Different Water Availability Conditions
Water Use Efficiency
Whole-Plant Adaptations to Low Water Availability
Physiological Adaptations
Anatomical and Morphological Adaptations
The Energy Balance of Leaves
Radiant Energy
Conduction and Convection
Latent Heat Exchange
Putting It All Together: Leaf and Whole-Plant Temperature
Adaptations to Extreme Temperature Regimes
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 4 Soils, Mineral Nutrition, and Belowground Interactions
Soil Composition and Structure
Soil Texture
Soil pH
Horizons and Profiles
Origins and Classification
Water Movement within Soils
Organic Matter and the Role of Organisms
Plant Mineral Nutrition
The Stoichiometry of Nutrients
Nitrogen in Plants and Soils
Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Phosphorus in Soils
Nutrient Use Efficiency
Leaf Life Span and Evergreen versus Deciduous Leaves
Mycorrhizae
Major Groups of Mycorrhizae
The Role of Mycorrhizae in Plant Phosphorus Nutrition
Other Functions of Mycorrhizae
Orchids and Their Mycorrhizal Associations
Effects of Mycorrhizae on Plant Interactions
Mutualism or Parasitism?
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
PART II Populations and Evolution
Chapter 5 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline
Some Issues in the Study of Plant Population Growth
Population Structure
Some Population Structure Issues Specific to Plants
Sources of Population Structure
Studying Population Growth and Decline
Life Cycle Graphs
Matrix Models
Analyzing Matrix Models
Lifetime Reproduction: The Net Reproductive Rate
But Real Plants Live in Variable Environments
Reproductive Value: The Contribution of Each Stage to Population Growth
Sensitivity and Elasticity
Life Table Response Experiments
Age and Stage, Revisited
Other Approaches to Modeling Plant Demography
Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants
Causes of Random Variation
Random Variation in Population Growth and Decline
Long-Term Growth Rates
Studying Variable Population Growth
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 6 Evolutionary Processes and Outcomes
Natural Selection
Variation and Natural Selection
The Factors Necessary for Natural Selection
Resemblance among Relatives
Heritability
Partitioning Phenotypic Variation
Gene-Environment Covariation
Genotype-Environment Interactions
Heavy-Metal Tolerance
Patterns of Adaptation
Adaptive Plasticity
Levels of Selection
Other Evolutionary Processes
Processes that Decrease Variation
Processes that Increase Variation
Variation among Populations
Ecotypes
Speciation
Adaptation and Speciation through Hybridization
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 7 Growth and Reproduction of Individuals
Plant Growth
Ecology of Growth
Plant Architecture and Light Interception
Growth of Clonal Plants
Plant Reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction
Sexual Life Cycles of Plants
Seeds Produced Asexually
Pollination Ecology
Wind Pollination
Attracting Animal Visitors: Visual Displays
Attracting Animal Visitors: Floral Odors and Acoustic Guides
Limiting Unwanted Visits
Pollination Syndromes
Aquatic Plants and Pollination
Who Mates with Whom?
Plant Gender
Competition for Pollinators and among Pollen Grains
Pollen Dispersal and Its Consequences
Frequency-Dependent Selection
Assortative Mating
Factors that Shape Plant Mating Systems
Applications of Pollination and Mating System Ecology
The Ecology of Fruits and Seeds
Seed Dispersal Patterns
Seed Banks
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 8 Plant Life Histories
Size and Number of Seeds
Life History Strategies
Life Span
and K-selection
Grime’s Triangular Model
Demographic Life History Theory
Reproductive Allocation
Difficulties in Measuring Trade-Offs
Variation among Years
Consequences of Variable Environments
Seed Germination
Masting
Vegetative Phenology
Phenology: Within-Year Schedules of Growth and Reproduction
Reproductive Phenology: Abiotic Factors
Reproductive Phenology: Biotic Factors
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
PART III Communities and Their Causes
Chapter 9 Community Properties and Mechanisms
What Is a Community?
The History of a Controversy
A Modern Perspective on the Issues in Contention
Are Communities Real?
Describing Communities
Species Richness
Diversity, Evenness, and Dominance
Sampling Methods and Parameters for Describing Community Composition
Physiognomy
Long-Term Studies
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 10 Competition and Other Interactions Among Plants
Competition at the Level of Individuals
Seedlings: Density and Mortality
Mechanisms of Competition for Resources
Size and Resource Competition
Experimental Methods for Studying Competition
Greenhouse and Garden Experiments
Field Experiments
From Interspecific Competition to Allelopathy to Facilitation
Trade-offs and Strategies
Competitive Hierarchies
Allelopathy
Facilitation
Modeling Competition and Coexistence
Equilibrium Models
Nonequilibrium Approaches to Modeling Competition
Effects of Competition on Species Coexistence and Community Composition
Competition along Environmental Gradients
Conceptual Models of Competition in Habitats with Differing Productivities
Experimental Evidence
Evidence from Research Syntheses
Resolution of Differing Results
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Seedlings: Density, Size, Inequality, and Timing of Emergence
Chapter 11 Herbivory and Plant-Pathogen Interactions
Herbivory at the Level of Individuals
Herbivory and Plant Populations
Herbivory and Spatial Distribution of Plants
Granivory
Biological Control
Effects of Herbivory at the Community Level
Consequences of Herbivore Behavior
Apparent Competition
Introduced and Domesticated Herbivores
Effects of Native Herbivores
Plant Defenses against Herbivory
Generality
Physical Defenses
Plant Secondary Chemistry
Constitutive versus Induced Defenses
Evolutionary Consequences of Plant-Herbivore Interactions
Parasitic Plants
Effects of Disease on Individual Plants
Pathogens
Physiological and Evolutionary Responses to Pathogens
Effects of Pathogens at the Population and Community Level
More Complex Interactions
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 12 Disturbance and Succession
Theories of the Mechanisms of Succession
Disturbance
Gaps
Fire
Wind
Water
Animals
Humans
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Disease
Colonization
Determining the Nature of Succession
Interaction between Methodology and Understanding
Mechanisms Responsible for Successional Change
The Predictability of Succession
Community Restoration
Primary Succession
Climax Revisited
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 13 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity
Dominance
Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior?
Abundance Curves
Rarity and Commonness
The Nature of Rarity
Patterns of Rarity and Commonness
Causes of Rarity and Commonness
Invasive Species and Community Susceptibility to Invasion
Why Do Some Species Become Invasive?
What Makes a Community Susceptible to Invasion?
Abundance and Community Structure
Productivity and Diversity
Niche Differentiation, Environmental Heterogeneity, and Diversity
Gaps, Disturbance, and Diversity
Effects of Increasing Diversity
Testing the Effects of Diversity on Ecosystems
Diversity and Stability
Regional Processes
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
PART IV Ecosystems and Landscapes
Chapter 14 Ecosystem Processes
Biogeochemical Cycles: Quantifying Pools and Fluxes
The Global Water Cycle
Carbon in Ecosystems
Productivity
Methods for Estimating Productivity
Decomposition and Soil Food Webs
Carbon Storage
Models of Ecosystem Carbon Cycles
Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle at Ecosystem and Global Levels
Nitrogen Fixation
Other Sources of Nitrogen Input to Living Organisms
Nitrogen Mineralization
Denitrification and Leaching of Nitrogen
Decomposition Rates and Nitrogen Immobilization
Plant Uptake of Nitrogen
Phosphorus in Terrestrial Ecosystems
Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling and Plant Diversity
Ecosystem Processes for Some Other Elements
Sulfur
Calcium
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 15 Communities in Landscapes
Comparing Communities
Non-numerical Techniques
Univariate Techniques
Multivariate Techniques
Landscape Patterns
Ordination: Describing Patterns
Determining Causes of Patterns
Types of Data
Classification
Views on Continuous versus Discrete Landscapes
Differentiation Diversity
Landscape Diversity
Pattern Diversity
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 16 Landscape Ecology
Spatial Patterns
Six Types of Species-Area Curves
Defining Patches
Quantifying Patch Characteristics and Interrelationships
The Effects of Spatial Patterns on Ecological Processes
Scale
Definitions and Concepts
Process and Scale
Spatial and Ecological Scale
Quantifying Aspects of Spatial Pattern and Scale
Toward a Theoretical Basis for Landscape Patterns: Island Biogeography Theory
Metapopulation Theory
Metapopulation Patterns
Species-Time-Area Relationships
Landscape Ecology and Conservation
Reserve Design
Fragmentation
Edges, Connectivity, and Nestedness
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
PART V Global Patterns and Processes
Chapter 17 Climate and Physiognomy
Climate and Weather
Temperature
Short-Term Variation in Radiation and Temperature
Long-Term Cycles
Precipitation
Global Patterns
Continental-Scale Patterns
Seasonal Variation in Precipitation
The El Niño Southern Oscillation
Predictability and Long-Term Change
Plant Physiognomy across the Globe
Forests
Tree Line
Grasslands and Woodlands
Shrublands and Deserts
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 18 Biomes
Categorizing Vegetation
Converging Biomes and Convergent Evolution
Moist Tropical Forests
Tropical Rainforest
Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands
Tropical Montane Forest
Tropical Deciduous Forest
Tropical Woodland
Thorn Forest
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands
Temperate Rainforest
Temperate Evergreen Forest
Temperate Woodland
Taiga
Temperate Shrubland
Grasslands
Temperate Grassland
Tropical Savanna
Deserts
Hot Desert
Alpine and Arctic Vegetation
Alpine Grassland and Shrubland
Cold Desert
Tundra
Summary
Questions for Study and Thought
Additional Readings
Chapter 19 Regional and Global Diversity
Large-Scale Patterns of Species Richness
General Factors Affecting Diversity
Levels of Explanation
Null Models
The Importance of Available Energy
Diversity along Ecological Gradients
Contributions of a, b, and g Diversity
Productivity and Scale
Diversity along Latitudinal Gradients
An Array of Explanations
The Role of b Diversity
Continental Differences
Other Geographic Patterns
Species Diversity and Patterns of Overlap
Endemism, Centers of Diversification, and Isolation
Relationships between Regional and Local Diversity
Noisy Data and Limits to Methodology
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 20 Paleoecology
The Paleozoic Era
The Mesozoic Era
The Dominance of Gymnosperms
The Breakup of Pangaea and the Rise of the Angiosperms
The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary
The Cenozoic Era
Paleoecology Methods
The Recent Past
At the Glacial Maximum
Glacial Retreat
Climatic Fluctuations in the Recent Past
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Chapter 21 Global Change: Humans and Plants
Carbon and Plant-Atmosphere Interactions
The Global Carbon Cycle
Direct Effects of Increasing CO2 on Plants
Anthropogenic Global Climate Change
The Greenhouse Effect
Global Climate Change: Evidence
Global Climate Change: Predictions
Biotic Consequences of Climate Change
Deforestation
Anthropogenic Effects on the Global Carbon Cycle
Fossil Fuel Combustion
Acid Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition
Declining Global Biodiversity and Its Causes
Habitat Fragmentation and Loss
Other Threats to Rare and Common Species in a Range of Communities
Invasive Species as Threats to Biodiversity
Human Populations and Land Use Patterns
A Ray of Hope?
Summary
Questions for Further Study
Additional Readings
Appendix: A Statistics Primer
Data Description
Estimating Accuracy
Using and Reporting Statistics
Glossary
Photo Credits
Literature Cited
Index