Table of Contents Machine generated contents note: Research versus Other Ways of Knowing
Knowledge from Authorities
Knowledge from Personal Inquiry
The Scientific Method and Its Strengths
The Uses and Purposes of Social Research
Exploratory Research
Descriptive Research
Explanatory Research
Evaluation Research
Summary
Concepts, Variables, and Hypotheses
Social Science and Causality: A Word of Caution
The Relationship between Theory and Research
Focal Research Excerpt from "Moving On? Continuity and Change after Retirement": Role Theory
Focal Research Excerpt from "The Terrible Towel and Fair-Weather Fans: Steelers Nation as a Quasi-Religion"
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The Cyclical Model of Science
Summary
The Responsibilities of Researchers
A Historical Perspective on Research Ethics
Focal Research Ethical Concerns and Researcher Responsibilities in Studying Women with HIV/AIDS
Principles for Doing Ethical Research
Principles Regarding Participants in Research
Ethical Issues Concerning Colleagues, the Community, and the General Public
Ethical Dilemmas During and After Data Collection
Conflict Between Ethical Principles
Conflict Between Ethical Principles and Legal Concerns
Conflict between Ethical Principles and Research Interests
Ethics and Publishing Results
Making Decisions to Maximize Benefit and Minimize Risk 64 Summary
Sources and Examples of Research Questions
Focal Research Career and Family: From College Expectations to Late-Thirties Outcomes
The Impact of Values on Science
Personal Experiences
Research and the Social, Political, and Economic World
Sources and Impacts of Research Funding
Practical Matters
Reviewing the Literature
Access
Time and Money
Summary
Why Sample?
Sampling Frames, Probability versus Nonprobability Samples
Focal Research Calling Cell Phones in '08 Pre-Election Polls
Sources of Error Associated with Sampling
Coverage Errors
Nonresponse Errors
Sampling Errors
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Choosing a Sampling Technique
Summary
Measuring Variables
Conceptualization
Operationalization
An Example of Conceptualization and Operationalization
Composite Measures
Focal Research "How's Life?" and other ways to measure happiness
Measurement in Visual Analysis and Qualitative Research
Exhaustive and Mutually Exclusive Categories
Quality of Measurement
Checking Reliability
Checking Validity
Focal Research Measuring Suicide
Level of Measurement
Nominal Level Variables
Ordinal Level Variables
Interval Level Variables
Ratio Level Variables
The Practical Significance of Level of Measurement
Summary
Designing a Study
Connections between the Uses of Research, Theory, and Study Design
Study Design Choices
Cross-Sectional Study Design
Cross-Sectional Studies and Causal Relationships
Longitudinal Designs: Panel, Trend, and Cohort Designs
Focal Research Moving On? Continuity and Change after Retirement
Summary
Causal Hypotheses and Experimental Designs
The Experiment: Data Collection Technique or Study Design?
Experimental Designs
Internal Validity and Experiments
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Experiment
Advantages of Pretest-Posttest Experiments
Posttest-Only Control Group Experiment
Extended Experimental Design
Quasi-Experimental Design
Experiments in the Field
Focal Research Student Learning: A Field Experiment in the Classroom
Experiments in the Laboratory
Natural Experiments
Comparing Experiments to Other Designs
Summary
Surveys
Focal Research Environmentalism among College Students: A Sociological Investigation
The Uses of Questionnaires and Interviews
Participant Involvement
Self-Administered Questionnaires
Group-Administered Questionnaires
Mailed and Individually Administered Questionnaires
Internet and Web Surveys
Cover Letters and Follow-Ups
Interviews
In-Person Interviews
Phone Interviews
Constructing Questions
Types of Questions
How to Ask Questions
Guidelines for Question Wording
Response Categories Guidelines
Summary
Qualitative Interviews
Focal Research Managing Motherhood in Prison
Variations in Qualitative Interviews
Number and Length of Interviews
Degree of Structure
Interviews Using Visual Methods
Joint Interviewers
Group and Focus Group Interviews
Issues of Validity and Practicality
Locating Interviewees, Presenting the Project, and Encouraging Participation
Planning the Interview
Using Consent Forms
Constructing an Interview Guide or Schedule
Speaking the Same Language
Conducting the Interview
Where and How to Interview
Recording the Interview
Being "Real" in the Interview
Interviewing across the Great Divides
After the Interview's Over
Analyzing Interview Data
Summary
Focal Research The Terrible Towel and Fair-Weather Fans: Steelers Nation as a Quasi-Religion
Observational Techniques Defined
Reasons for Doing Observations
Observer Roles
Getting Ready for Observation
Gaining Access and Ethical Concerns
Gathering the Data
Visual Sociology
Analyzing the Data
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Techniques
Summary
Available Data
Focal Research Comparing the Context of Immigrant Homicides in Miami: Haitians, Jamaicans, and Mariels
Kinds of Available Data
Secondary Data
Existing Statistics
Other Kinds of Available Data
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Available Data
Summary
Focal Research Who Envisions the Distaff Side?: Female Visibility in Children's Picture Books over Time and by Authors' Race, Ethnicity, Sexual Sympathies and Gender
Appropriate Topics for Content Analysis
Materials Appropriate for Content Analysis
Questions Asked by Content Analyzers
Quantitative Content Analysis
Units of Analysis
Sampling
Creating Meaningful Variables
Qualitative Content Analysis
Visual Analysis
Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Summary
Basic and Applied Research
Social Problems and Social Solutions
Evaluation Research
Outcome Evaluation
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Needs Assessments and Other Kinds of Evaluations
Focal Research A Needs Assessment of Incarcerated Women in Ecuador
Designing Evaluation Research
Participatory Action Research
Explicit Goals
Participation and the Researcher's Role
Final Considerations
A Middle Ground
Politics and Applied Research
Beyond Our Control
Having an Impact
Summary
Quantitative or Qualitative?
An Overview of Quantitative Data Analysis
An Overview of Qualitative Analyses
Quantitative Data Analysis
Sources of Data for Quantitative Analysis
Elementary Quantitative Analyses
Univariate Analyses
Measures of Central Tendency
Variation
Measures of Dispersion or Variation for Interval Scale Variables
Bivariate Analyses
Measures of Association
Measures of Correlation
Inferential Statistics
Multivariate Analysis and the Elaboration Model
Qualitative Data Analysis
Social Anthropological versus Interpretivist Approaches
Does Qualitative Data Analysis Emerge from or Generate the Data Collected?
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Data Analysis Revisited
Are There Predictable Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis?
Data Collection and Transcription
Data Reduction
Coding
Types of Coding
Memoing
Data Displays
Conclusion Drawing and Verification
Pre-Report Writing
Qualitative Report Writing
Summary.